We Asked an Anthropologist About the Gangs of 19th-Century New York

Five Points in 1827

Beginning in the 1830s, a combination of poverty, rapid industrialization, and immigration contributed to the rise of notorious street gangs throughout New York City. For the next several decades, these groups ran rampant until being largely replaced by organized crime syndicates toward the end of the 19th century. But during their heyday, gangs such as the Bowery Boys and Dead Rabbits ruled the streets of New York, particularly a neighborhood in southern Manhattan known as the Five Points. This turbulent period in New York City was marked by violence and corruption, events that were brought to the silver screen in Martin Scorsese’s 2002 historical drama Gangs of New York.

While that film is based on realities of the time, it also furthered several misconceptions about this crime-ridden era. We reached out to anthropologist R. Brian Ferguson, a professor at Rutgers University-Newark and author of the 2023 book Chimpanzees, War, and History, to learn more about this volatile period in NYC history. Ferguson has spent decades studying and teaching how conflict permeates throughout society, and was interviewed for the 2002 documentary Uncovering the Real Gangs of New York, a special feature included on DVD copies of the Scorsese film.

(Editor’s note: This interview has been edited for length and clarity.)

HISTORY FACTS: What was life like in New York City’s Five Points neighborhood?

FERGUSON: Well, the Five Points was from the intersection of different streets, and it began as a residential neighborhood but it was built on landfill from filling in a big lake. So it was wet, and it was sinking, which meant that it was full of diseases in the summer. By 1827, it was already disreputable. Mainly poor people who had no choice about where to live were there — it was the bottom for New York society.

For decades it became — not just in New York, but internationally — famous for incredible squalor and crime and drunkenness and prostitution. It became a symbol for all of that. It was also a highly political environment, and the politics of the time were more contentious in New York than what we’re seeing today in our own lives. It was really a tough time politically.

HISTORY FACTS: Speaking of politics, I know Tammany Hall was a big player in New York City. What was Tammany Hall and how did it play a role in local politics?

FERGUSON: Tammany Hall was the Democratic political machine. It won elections, gave out patronage; it was famous for corruption and vote fraud. But besides that, it was the only kind of government that did anything for the poorest of the poor. In the 1840s, it had found its base in immigrants who were pouring into New York, many of whom were Catholic, which Protestant America generally hated.

Tammany Hall was controlled by political ward politicians from the street up, using force. It wasn’t a top-down organization as it once was, but it was really responding to what was happening on the streets, like in the Five Points. The Five Points was its central power base because it was so densely populated. It was known as the “Bloody Ould Sixth Ward,” and the votes from there could control mayors, city government, even tip state and presidential elections.

Photo credit: Sueddeutsche Zeitung Photo/ Alamy Stock Photo

HISTORY FACTS: Who were the predominant gangs at the time?

FERGUSON: Gangs were always changing; they rarely lasted more than a few years. They came and went by time and place and by politics. The movie by Scorsese is based on a book by Herbert Asbury, both called Gangs of New York, and both of those introduced a lot of inaccuracies. In the movie, the big gangs were the Dead Rabbits and the followers of Bill “the Butcher” Poole. The riot that did occur was between the Dead Rabbits and the Bowery Boys. The Dead Rabbits were a gang; whether the Bowery Boys were a gang or not — they were also kind of a social type — is not as clear.

The movie was inspired by the Bowery Boy-Dead Rabbit riot of 1857. That was a real thing that went on for hours with maybe 11 people dead, and it involved fighting — bricks, up to guns. It was the biggest gang clash that ever occurred in New York City. Not the biggest violence on the street, but the biggest gang clash. And that was the inspiration for Scorsese’s film adaptation.

HISTORY FACTS: You mentioned immigration — how did the gangs reflect the ethnic makeup of New York City at this time?

FERGUSON: The gangs were organized — the nucleus of the power structure were saloons and volunteer fire companies, which were omnipresent and very political. Leadership in a gang came by association with one of those, and leadership was based mainly on fists. Fighting in the street was extremely common. All neighborhoods had their ethnic character, but it was never pure; it was always a mix.

So the Five Points was mostly Irish-inhabited at this point, but not exclusively. Gangs were mostly Irish but wouldn’t turn away anybody who lived in the neighborhood who could fight. But they were also shaped from the top down. Politicians built their organizations based on the compositions of neighborhoods. It was both a cause and effect of the political organization that gave life to the gangs. And it wasn’t just mostly Irish, but you could say particular areas of Ireland. A whole building might be from one area.

But [in terms of the city’s general ethnic makeup] German immigration was big; [New York City] also had people who were native born and were seen as “true” Americans. Italians hadn’t come in yet; the Eastern European Jews hadn’t come in yet. But New York always had lots of different people in it, like Syrians were a big immigrant population.

HISTORY FACTS: How did immigration contribute to the rise of these gangs?

FERGUSON: The immigration was a big part of, to use a contemporary word, the intersectionality of street organizations back then. Most immigrants were also extremely poor. But it wasn’t just the immigrants — this is when industrialism was on the rise, unemployment was exploding for all, and the time around the 1850s was seen as mainly just rich and poor. [There was] little in between. And poverty was mapped onto the ethnic divisions.

Also, politicians would scare the immigrants with the specter of competition from freed slaves, and really conjured up racism to a hot degree. So, there were mixes in terms of how people were organized. The racist, and anti-abolitionist groups, were mostly poor and could include any of the poor. But nativism, which was anti-immigrant, excluded the Catholics, and the Catholics were a lot of the poor. So there were these different combinations possible, and the local ward politicians worked all of these permutations.

HISTORY FACTS: Is the Irish vs. “native” conflict as depicted in Scorsese’s film accurate?

FERGUSON: The Irish versus the “native” thing, it’s a yes and no. It’s not false, but it’s not really true either. The Bowery Boy-Dead Rabbit riot of 1857 was part of crises all across the United States in the time leading up to the Civil War. In New York state, this played out largely as a conflict between the state government and the city government. The state government in Albany was Protestant, Republican, and anti-immigrant, and the city government by this time was more immigrant- and Catholic-oriented and Democrat. So this was the polarization.

The state of New York then put through, in 1857, a kind of a coup, restructuring the city, which took over many of the city functions — like control of the Port of New York. But most important of all, they disbanded the police force at the time — the Tammany police force known as the Municipal Police — and created a new police force called the Metropolitan Police that were controlled from Albany. Tammany itself, besides the state and city thing, was extremely divided into two warring factions. So there was like a three-way struggle going on.

Nativism was a part of all of that, but who had political power, and who got the benefits of controlling corruption were at least as big or bigger issues. When I did research on the gangs that fought in 1857, they all had clear local political alignments, and one thing that was left out entirely of the film, and Asbury’s book, was that the fights that became riots began with attacks on the Metropolitan Police — that’s the state police force. That was clearly one of the biggest issues here.

HISTORY FACTS: What led to the rise of these gangs and their eventual downfall?

FERGUSON: Well, poor neighborhoods like the Five Points — but there were many — provided kind of the raw material: people who could fight and were looking for something to do, and were looking for a leg up. These could be shaped into adult gangs. But as an anthropologist, what I like to look at is the local organizations of the street that organized and raised up gangs into kind of political actors. Back at that time, there were two organizations: There was the saloon, which was the neighborhood center, and the volunteer fire companies, which were all over the city and connected to large political factions. And [all of these groups] were always fighting; they would fight each other all the time. So, the conflicts in 1857 went through these things, like volunteer fire companies and saloons, to raise these local street people up into named gangs and to pit them against each other.

If you look at the gangs around then, they’re very big in newspapers of the times. After that, they’re not so much. In later years, and I’ll just pick 1885 as an example, there were still street gangs all around the town, but they were less important politically. The reason was the then-boss of Tammany Hall, a guy named Dick Croker, had iron control and didn’t need [the gangs] as much.

Also, that was the Gilded Age of extreme capitalist fortunes, and the capitalists who had great control over the city supported the police, which by that point was the NYPD, to keep control of what they saw as dangerous classes — the people who lived in the slums. Otherwise, cops — if [the cops] kept [the people in the slums] from being a problem — could do whatever they wanted, which led over a couple of decades to police brutality and corruption.

And then there was a big scandal that came along in 1895. It was called the Lexow Investigation and it revealed that the New York Police Department was what they called “organized criminality” in New York City. It wasn’t allowing it, it was it. So, reform and another era of political turmoil in Tammany Hall led to new named gangs coming up. People might recognize the Monk Eastman gang or the Paul Kelly gang. And by about 1900, these were changing from what they used to be and taking over what the police had been pushed out of and had controlled, including gambling and prostitution and rackets and extortion.

That was a new era that led to the gangster era, and the gangsters in their peak generally led to less street crime because they were organized to make money. You didn’t want people to get mugged when they came out of a speakeasy. So, the area got less violent, less uncontrolled, as that developed. And as it went on, New York City went through the whole process of development, which is a much bigger topic about changing industrial structure and job structure and development of a middle class.

Photo credit: AJ Pics/ Alamy Stock Photo

HISTORY FACTS: Going back to Scorsese’s movie, what did the film get right and what did it get wrong?

FERGUSON: It’s imaginary, like any movie; I don’t hold that against it. The plot, of course, is fiction. The film was loosely based on Herbert Asbury’s book, and Herbert Asbury really tried, but he had bad information. I’ve tracked down most of his sources in my own research. The movie did get the look right. Many details of the time are very real. They exaggerated certain things, like they made the Dead Rabbits look like they wore a particular kind of uniform, which, not really. No naval ships fired cannons on crowds, although soldiers did. The film left out the stench and the insects and the sewers in the street and all of that stuff. So you don’t get quite that depth of it, but it’s a movie. (Editor’s note: Ferguson recommended a book by Tyler Anbinder called Five Points for those interested in learning more about these details.)

Other big inaccuracies are due to the fact that the filmmakers had to compress time. And so Bill “the Butcher” [Poole] — the guy played by Daniel Day-Lewis — was dead a few years before the big Bowery Boy-Dead Rabbits riot. And Scorsese, consistent with his own film background, made Bill Poole a crime boss, getting a cut of everything. No, that came later. There’s nothing indicating that this was organized crime in that sense. Another thing is that Bill Poole worked for the politicians. He wouldn’t kill one of them, as he does in the film. There was a political hierarchy and he was a step down.

There were, in reality, lots of little turf fights all the time, but there wasn’t anything like Daniel Day-Lewis says to decide once and for all who’s going to be the lords of the Five Points. It wasn’t that kind of territorial control. And one big inaccuracy of the movie is the excessive violence, especially in the opening riot. Now, there was violence all the time, but with fists and bricks and sometimes up to guns. Most people in the poor neighborhoods didn’t own guns; they were too expensive. But there were chimneys all over the place and you could topple a chimney over and you’ve got a supply of bricks, which is what they did.

I think the thing that I have the biggest issue with in the film is that it leaves out how important was politics and everything that was going on, and how important was the role of the new state Metropolitan Police. But I’ll add, on a positive note, I think it was great that Scorsese brought in the Draft Riots [violent citywide protests against the Civil War draft and fueled by racial tension] — although, this was not a gang event, other than gang members participating in rioting mobs, individually. But I teach about the Draft Riots, and what I can tell you is that no one has heard about this incredible event in American national history. The Draft Riots tell you an awful lot about what was becoming America.

HISTORY FACTS: What gang-related sites from this time period are still standing?

FERGUSON: There are a lot of gang locations if you know where to look, walking on 2nd Avenue from 14th Street to Houston Street. And there’s more than a dozen significant locations, mainly shootings, that took place on that stretch, although that was mostly the later gangsters up to the beginning of Prohibition.

From the [Gangs of New York] film era, and for the Five Points, there’s really only one thing that remains. On the northwest corner of Baxter and Worth Street — this is between the courthouse district and Columbus Park — is the only remaining point. That point, I can’t go by that area without going by and standing on that point. I’ve seen lots of illustrations of the Five Points and I just imagine all those illustrations while I’m there and standing on that point. But that’s the only physical remnant that you can see.

As time went on, the Five Points kind of got toned down by mission and other reform efforts in the Five Points itself. The most squalid and dangerous part of New York moved just one block east to Mulberry Street. When they tore down the block known as Mulberry Bend, they didn’t cart the stuff away; they just tumbled everything into the basements. So when they were redoing Columbus Park, they cleaned away the surface and I could see all of these basements that were the Five Points, that were Mulberry Bend — they’re still there. But they’re underground.

If I can expand the scope a little bit for gangster sites, my favorite is many blocks north on Great Jones Street, which is in the East Village. Right on the south side of Great Jones Street, west of the Bowery, there are two buildings. One has a window on the second floor that has an arch to it. This window became famous because Andy Warhol bought it some years ago, and the artist [Jean-Michel] Basquiat had a studio there, and in fact died in that room. But that building was the headquarters of Paul Kelly’s gang. Paul Kelly, whose birth name was Paul Vaccarelli, is what my [current] research centers on, and I think he was the most successful gangster in New York City history. For one thing, he died in bed, which most gangsters didn’t.

____

R. Brian Ferguson is a New York City-based anthropologist. To learn more about his work, visit his website. His most recent work, Chimpanzees, War and History, is also available for purchase here.

Recommendations For You

Why Do We Give Flowers as Gifts? A Brief History

Flower bouquet box

Flowers have been collected and shared since ancient times, appreciated for their beauty, scent, and practical uses. The long tradition of giving flowers for special occasions has evolved over the centuries, but it’s still an enduring ritual that spans all cultures. From congratulations on the birth of a baby to condolences on the loss of a loved one, sending flowers continues to be one of the most popular ways to mark the momentous events of life. It’s so popular, in fact, that the worldwide cut flowers market was over $36 billion in 2022, and is projected to go over $45 billion by 2027. Valentine’s Day continues to be the biggest flower-giving day of the year, but it is far from the only special occasion marked by this ancient ritual. Here is a look at the fascinating role flowers have played throughout human history, from the evolution of flowering plants to the booming floral industry.

Photo credit: Xinhua News Agency via Getty Images

The First Flowers

Around 80% of green plants are flowering plants, and the oldest flowers in the world date back to the Cretaceous Period more than 130 million years ago. Those first flowers didn’t resemble ones we know and love today: They were barely visible to the human eye and almost unrecognizable as flowers even under a microscope. The interaction between flowering plants and insects aided in the coevolution of both, with flowers developing strong fragrances, appealing colors, and larger petals to attract pollinators. It was these same traits that also appealed to the earliest human societies, which began to cultivate and use flowering plants in religious and cultural ceremonies.

Photo credit: DEA / W. BUSS/ De Agostini via Getty Images

The Flowers of Antiquity

Some of today’s most popular flowers for bouquets and floral arrangements were first cultivated thousands of years ago. The cultural significance of flowers has been reflected in the art and literature of ancient China, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Roses, one of the most popular flowers for gifting, were first grown in gardens 5,000 years ago in China. The ancient Egyptians used flowers in religious ceremonies as offerings to the gods and the dead, decorated their war carts with flowers before going to battle, and painted and carved floral and leaf motifs into their art. The Greeks and Romans used flowers in similar ways, associating specific varieties with their gods and goddesses and using flowering plants in festivals, rituals, and for their own enjoyment.

In more recent history, cherry blossoms (sakura) have been revered in Japan since the Heian period (794–1185) and, because they bloom for only a short time in the spring, are associated with the transient nature of life. Marigolds, which have been a part of Mexican culture since the pre-Columbian era, were imported to India over 350 years ago and have become an integral part of wedding celebrations and Hindu festivals such as Diwali.

The Victorian Era’s Flower “Language”

In Europe, the symbolic use of flowers developed in the medieval and Renaissance eras, when different flowers and flowering plants were linked to a variety of virtues and emotions. In the Victorian era of the 19th century, floriography, or the language of flowers, emerged as a way of communicating specific sentiments through the type, color, and even the arrangement of specific flowers. This form of flower code was a way of conveying one’s feelings in an era marked by restraint and discretion. Artist and writer Kate Greenaway’s Language in Flowers, published in 1884, was an indispensable floriography dictionary, providing the meanings of different flowers and their significance in bouquets and floral arrangements. For instance, if a gentleman wished to send a bouquet of flowers to his betrothed, he might include blue violets, signifying faithfulness, and white roses, meaning “I am worthy of you.”

Flower-Giving Blossoms in the 20th Century

Floristry — the cultivation, arrangement, and sale of cut flowers — developed around the mid-19th century. The Society of American Florists was established in Chicago in 1884 to advance floral artists and sales. As the 20th century began, the proliferation of floral shops and flower delivery services further popularized and commercialized the tradition of giving flowers. Mother’s Day, ranking second only to Valentine’s Day in flower-giving, became an official U.S. holiday in 1914, receiving enthusiastic support and promotion from the floral industry.

Though floriography isn’t as popular today as it was in the Victorian era, different flowers continue to carry specific meanings. Giving someone red roses still signifies feelings of love and desire, while white lilies are still considered traditional flowers in many cultures for both weddings (representing purity and new beginnings) and funerals (grief and remembrance). In a nod to the old-fashioned flower code, Kate Middleton’s 2011 wedding bouquet included white Sweet William blossoms, signifying gallantry (and referencing the groom, Prince William).

Today, flowers remain a popular gift for a wide variety of occasions, both to convey specific sentiments as well as to be enjoyed for their aesthetic beauty. With more than 15,000 retail florists in the United States alone, it is easier than ever to let someone know we’re thinking about them. Modern technology has even embraced the tradition of flower-giving with a series of floral emoji, including a rose, hibiscus, cherry blossom, sunflower, tulip, and flower bouquet. Now, “giving” flowers is as simple as dashing off a text message or writing an email, proving that the long history of flower-giving endures.

Recommendations For You

5 Major Firsts in TV History

Presidential debate, 1960

For all the formulaic sitcoms and talk shows that have run throughout the history of television, there are a number of times when audiences have witnessed true ingenuity. From memorable commercials to shocking plot twists, television events that may seem commonplace today once revolutionized the medium. Ever since the demonstration of the first television in 1926, the small screen has been a reflection of larger shifts in American society. With that in mind, here are five historic firsts in television history.

Photo credit: Jerome Cid/ Alamy Stock Photo

The First Official TV Commercial

On July 1, 1941, at 2:29 p.m., viewers tuning in to the NBC-owned WNBT television station saw something they had never seen before. Before that day’s broadcast of the Brooklyn Dodgers vs. Philadelphia Phillies baseball game, the first authorized TV commercial hit the airwaves. The inaugural ad was produced by Bulova watches and ran for about 60 seconds, featuring visuals of a clock superimposed over a map of the United States with the accompanying voice-over, “America runs on Bulova time.”

The watchmaker paid just $9 to broadcast the advertisement ($4 for air fees and $5 for station fees), a far cry from the exorbitant advertising prices of today. WNBT was also the only station to advertise that day, though other networks soon followed suit. The Federal Communications Commission had previously implemented an advertising ban that forbade television commercials, though broadcasters still ran ads without authorization. The FCC finally issued 10 commercial licenses on May 2, 1941 — ushering in a new chapter in television history.

Photo credit: MAKSYM MALCEV/ iStock via Getty Images Plus

The First Laugh Track

Laugh tracks are an indelible part of sitcom television, and it all began in 1950 with a little-known program called The Hank McCune Show. The sitcom debuted on local stations in 1949 and centered around a fictional television variety show host. By the time the series made its network debut on September 9, 1950, it was accompanied by roaring laughter from a laugh track despite the lack of any live studio audience. One review from Variety magazine said, “Although the show is lensed on film without a studio audience, there are chuckles and yucks dubbed in… the practice may have unlimited possibilities.”

The laugh track was invented by mechanical engineer Charles Douglass, who was formerly a radar technician in the Navy. After leaving the military, Douglass created a device that came to be known as the “Laff Box.” A rudimentary version of Douglass’ invention debuted on The Hank McCune Show, though it took him three years to perfect his invention. Each 3-foot-tall Laff Box was handmade by Douglass and could hold 32 reels of 10 laughs apiece. By the 1960s, Douglass was supplying his much-coveted Laff Box to such iconic television programs as The Munsters and Gilligan’s Island.

Photo credit: Pictorial Press Ltd/ Alamy Stock Photo

The First Spinoff

Television spinoffs are standard practice today, and we have The Gene Autry Show to thank for kicking off the concept in 1950. The show delighted TV audiences, following the exploits of the titular singing cowboy and his trusted horse, Champion. When The Gene Autry Show wrapped up in 1956, the series was so popular that it inspired television’s first spinoff, a series called The Adventures of Champion, which ran for 26 episodes between 1955 and 1956. While the concept of a spinoff was unusual at the time, it became significantly more popular with the debut of The Andy Griffith Show in 1960. Starring Griffith himself, the hit series actually originated from a single episode of The Danny Thomas Show titled “Danny Meets Andy Griffith,” in which Griffith debuted the character of Sheriff Andy Taylor. The episode was a hit, and the concept earned a television run of its own.

Photo credit: Hulton Archive/ Hulton Archive via Getty Images

The First Televised Presidential Debate

Television has long played a key role in American politics, and few televised political events have a stronger impact than presidential debates, the first of which aired in 1956. Though neither President Dwight D. Eisenhower nor his challenger Adlai Stevenson participated in a televised debate themselves that year, both were represented by proxies, with Senator Margaret Chase Smith filling in for Eisenhower and former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt representing Stevenson. The two women debated the issues live on-air on November 4, 1956, with Eisenhower coming out victorious in the election shortly thereafter.

The first televised presidential debate between the actual candidates occurred four years later, with a CBS broadcast on September 26, 1960. This debate pitted Senator John F. Kennedy against Vice President Richard Nixon, and was the first of four televised debates in advance of that year’s election. Kennedy was widely considered the winner of the debate, which many have speculated was due to his charismatic presence on camera compared to Nixon, who declined to wear makeup and appeared visibly sweaty. Though Nixon fared better in future debates, this moment in TV history helped Kennedy gain a valuable early lead in the polls, which he maintained en route to winning the presidency.

Photo credit: Archive Photos via Getty Images

The First Scripted Birth

In 1948, the sitcom Mary Kay and Johnny — starring real-life married couple Mary Kay and Johnny Stearns — made history by incorporating the actress’ pregnancy into the show, becoming the first TV show to depict a pregnancy and birth. When the couple’s son, Christopher, was born on December 19, 1948, Mary Kay was notably absent from the live taping. In response, Johnny wrote a 15-minute episode that featured him pacing around a hospital waiting room awaiting his son’s birth. Unfortunately, all but one full episode of Mary Kay and Johnny was lost in the 1970s, and the show’s impact was forgotten over time. It was a few years later that another sitcom, I Love Lucy, also depicted a pregnancy and birth, proving to be significantly more impactful given the show’s popularity.

When actress Lucille Ball — the biggest television star at the time — became pregnant in 1952, producers needed to figure out how to interweave her real changing appearance with her character on I Love Lucy. At first, network executives suggested coming up with methods for concealing Ball’s baby bump, such as having her hide behind chairs. But Desi Arnaz — Ball’s husband and co-star — found those suggestions insulting, and fought back. After a conversation between Arnaz, CBS, and advertiser Philip Morris, the latter signed off on a plan to incorporate Ball’s real-life pregnancy into the plot of the show.

While the word “pregnancy” remained forbidden, the show’s characters spoke using synonyms such as “expecting” in reference to Lucy’s storyline baby. The character’s pregnancy was revealed during a December 8, 1952, episode titled “Lucy Is Enceinte” — “enceinte” being the French word for pregnant. With Ball scheduled to deliver her actual child on January 19, 1953, CBS scheduled the pretaped birth episode for that very same evening. “Lucy Goes to the Hospital” was a major television event, attracting more than 44 million American viewers and helping pave the way for talking about other previously taboo topics on television.

Recommendations For You

6 Illuminating Facts About Secret Societies

Illuminatus initiation

The term “secret society” encompasses a wide variety of exclusive and clandestine organizations, many of which have been in existence for centuries and count some of history’s most influential figures among their members. Secret societies pique our curiosity because they often keep their activities and objectives concealed from nonmembers and the public. Though there are exceptions, the intentions of these exclusive groups are generally not nefarious; for instance, some college clubs can be considered secret societies because they have private rituals and traditions whose symbolism and mystique serve to create a sense of belonging and shared purpose.

The most prominent secret societies have left their mark on history, from wielding their influence over governments to shaping the course of labor and religious movements. Because of the secretive nature of these organizations, their historical origins can be complex to track down, and are often debated by historians and scholars. From the medieval beginnings of the Freemasons to the puzzling origins of Cicada 3301, here are six unusual facts about these mysterious groups.

Photo credit: Heritage Images/ Hulton Archive via Getty Images

One of the World’s Oldest Secret Societies Still Flourishes Today

The history of the Freemasons dates back to the Middle Ages and the guilds of skilled stonemasons who regulated the qualifications of the stoneworkers. Their work required stonemasons to travel, encouraging a more open-minded worldview. The modern Freemasonry society was founded in England in 1717 and quickly spread throughout Europe and the American colonies. The organization established guidelines not only for stonework, but also for the moral and spiritual values of its members. Today, there are over 6 million Freemasons around the world. They still use the same system of secret rituals — including handshakes, passwords, and symbols — that have been used since the 18th century, but in recent years the group has begun making moves toward modernization and transparency. In 2021, the Freemasons issued the first annual report in their 300-year history.

The Real Illuminati Was Interested in Enlightenment for All

The name “Illuminati” has been used to refer to various groups, both real and fictional, since the 15th century. But the group most closely linked to the name dates back almost 250 years to the Bavarian Illuminati, formally known as the Order of the Illuminati. The short-lived secret society was founded in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, in 1776 by German professor Adam Weishaupt, who wanted to create “a state of liberty and moral equality, freed from the obstacles which subordination, rank, and riches, continually throw in our way.” Taking inspiration from the Freemasons and French Enlightenment philosophers, Weishaupt formed a secret society that climbed to more than 2,000 members in Bavaria, France, Hungary, Italy, and other regions where Enlightenment ideas were taking hold. The Bavarian government eventually shut down the Illuminati in 1784, prohibiting the creation of any groups not authorized by law. But there were those who believed the society went underground, spawning a number of conspiracy theories that linked the group to world events, from the French Revolution to the 9/11 terror attacks.

Photo credit: piemags/DCM/ Alamy Stock Photo

Enslaved Women Founded America’s Oldest Secret Society of Black Women

The annals of history are filled with the names of secret societies whose membership was exclusive to men, but women have also had a role in creating these clandestine groups. The United Order of Tents is the oldest organization of Black women in the United States, founded by two formerly enslaved women, Annetta M. Lane and Harriet R. Taylor, in Norfolk, Virginia, in 1867. The organization, which still maintains chapters throughout the United States, is believed to have supported operations of the Underground Railroad. During the turbulence of the Reconstruction era, the group provided mutual aid and support to the Black community, serving as a “tent of salvation” turning their time of need.

Photo credit: GAUTIER Stephane/SAGAPHOTO.COM/ Alamy Stock Photo

An Ancient Secret Society Inspired a Video Game Franchise

In the 11th century, the Nizari Ismailis were a group of powerful medieval Shiite Muslims in Persia and Syria. The group used guerilla tactics to outwit their enemies, including Christian Crusaders arriving in the Holy Land. Hated by other Muslim groups, they were given the name Hashishin, a pejorative Arabic word meaning “hashish user,” which was later westernized by Crusaders as “Assassins” and the English word came to mean a paid killer. The group fell to the Mongols in the 13th century, but the legend of the Nizari Ismailis lives on. The video game “Assassin’s Creed” creates a fictionalized world based around the Assassins and another ancient secret society, the Knights Templar, a military order established in the 12th century and endorsed by the Catholic Church. The Knights Templar served as protectors of Christian pilgrims and Crusader states in the Holy Land, but their objectives differed from those of the Nizari Ismailis. Though the timelines of the two groups overlap, there is no historical evidence to support that the two groups fought each other.

Photo credit: Classic Image/ Alamy Stock Photo

One Secretive Club Has Its Own Elite Summer Camp

Among all of the exclusive societies, the Bohemian Club may be the only one with its own elite summer camp. Founded in 1872 in San Francisco as an exclusive gentlemen’s club for journalists, artists, and musicians, the Bohemian Club expanded to include international political and business leaders as well. Bohemian Grove, the club’s privately owned 2,700-acre campground in the redwood groves of Sonoma County, provides a gathering place for a two-week summer encampment that includes secret rituals, performances, and private discussions that have changed the course of history. At the 1967 Bohemian Grove encampment, Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan reportedly decided which of them would pursue the Republican presidential nomination. At a September 1942 gathering at Bohemian Grove, physicist Robert Oppenheimer attended an S-1 Executive Committee planning meeting to finalize details for the Manhattan Project, leading to the development of the atomic bomb. Given the privileged and private membership and traditions, it’s not surprising that the group has been the subject of conspiracy theories and protests and, most recently, a lawsuit alleging wage theft and labor violations.

Photo credit: Collection Christophel/ Alamy Stock Photo

New Secret Societies Are Finding a Home Online

Though secret organizations have existed for centuries, the internet has given rise to new ones in recent years. One of the most enigmatic is Cicada 3301, which appeared online in 2012. The group claimed to be searching for “highly intelligent individuals” by presenting a series of complex digital puzzles based on cryptographic techniques including ciphers, codes, and steganography. Solving the puzzles involved a wide range of knowledge about coding, programming, literature, art, and other disciplines. There was some speculation that the puzzles were being used as a recruitment tool for intelligence agencies, while others thought they might be part of the promotion of a new game, though no attempt was ever made to monetize the puzzles. Those who solved the early puzzles were presented with additional challenges and login credentials for a darknet site. The group’s identity remains unknown and they have been largely silent since 2014.

Recommendations For You

5 Little-Known Facts About Ellis Island

Family on Ellis Island

Under the watchful eye of the Statue of Liberty, Ellis Island was the entry point for countless immigrants who came to America at the turn of the 20th century. For a little over 60 years, from 1892 until its closure in 1954, the U.S. Immigration Station on Ellis Island processed more than 12 million immigrants, forever changing the culture of the United States. Today, Ellis Island is a place with a past as complicated as it is influential. Here are five facts about the singular role this 27.5-acre island played in American history.

Photo credit: Underwood Archives/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

The Island Has Had at Least Seven Different Names

Before Europeans colonized North America, Ellis Island was known as Kioshk, or Gull Island, by Mohegan Indigenous peoples. In 1630, the island was purchased by the Dutch, who went on to call it Little Oyster Island for its abundance of, you guessed it, oysters. Later, in the 1700s, the island became the site of a number of hangings and got the nickname “Gibbet Island,” meaning “gallows.” Over the years, the site was also known as Bucking Island, Dyre Island, and Anderson’s Island, until in 1774, the land was purchased by Samuel Ellis, who ran a tavern on the little spit of mud. Ellis died in 1794 and ownership of his namesake island remained with the Ellis family until 1806, when it was sold to a man named John A. Berry, who then sold it to the U.S. government in 1808.

Inspection Took Half a Day — and Not Everyone Passed

For European immigrants who deboarded their ships in good health and with papers in order, the inspection process lasted about half a day. Inspections consisted of a number of physicals as well as a reading test, along with a series of questions, including whether they already had family in America, if they’d ever been to prison, and if they were an anarchist. (The wave of immigration through Ellis Island coincided with a rise in fears about communism and anarchy in the United States.) Up to 20% of the immigrants who went into Ellis Island were detained for either political, legal, or health reasons, and around 2% were sent home.

Photo credit: Smith Collection/Gado/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

More Than 1 Million Immigrants Were Processed in 1907

On April 17, 1907, Ellis Island processed its highest number of immigrants in one day: 11,747 individuals. That year was the immigration facility’s most prolific, and it processed just over 1 million new arrivals. The island’s heyday ended after 1924, when the National Origins Act (part of the Immigration Act of 1924) restricted the number of immigrants who could come to the United States.

Some 40% of Americans Can Trace Their Roots to Ellis Island

The majority of immigrants who came through Ellis Island arrived from Southern and Eastern Europe, escaping a number of difficulties ranging from poverty to religious or ethnic persecution. Today, it’s believed that almost half of Americans can trace part of their ancestry back to Ellis Island. Modern visitors can stop by the Family History Center at the Ellis Island National Museum of Immigration to explore their families’ roots.

Ellis Island Is Located in Both New York and New Jersey

Ellis Island sits in New York Harbor between the states of New York and New Jersey, and though it is technically owned by the federal government as a historically protected site, it is officially located in both the Empire State and the Garden State. In 1998, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that both New York and New Jersey could lay claim to the island: The main building that tourists visit is located in New York, and a 21-acre portion of the island that was filled in later is located in New Jersey.

Recommendations For You

A Short History of 1967’s “Summer of Love”

Hippies watching a band

In 1967, San Francisco’s Haight-Ashbury district became the home base for a burgeoning counterculture. Known as the “Summer of Love,” the social movement was defined by a collective rejection of mainstream values and an embrace of ideals centered around peace, love, and personal freedom. An estimated 100,000 young people descended on the area; these artists, musicians, and drifters — collectively referred to as “hippies” — created an unforgettable cultural shift, touching everything from the way we view the self, to innovations in music, fashion, and art, and our approach to making an impact on society. More than 50 years later, the Summer of Love still dances freely in America’s memory.

Photo credit: Michael Ochs Archives via Getty Images

The Summer of Love Actually Started in the Winter

Contrary to its name, the Summer of Love actually kicked off in the wintertime. In January 1967, in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park, more than 20,000 people who shared a desire for peace, personal empowerment, and unity gathered for an event called the Human Be-In. It was a loud and proud harbinger to the blossoming counterculture movement set to congregate in Haight-Ashbury in just a few months.

The idea for the Human Be-In — also known as the “Gathering of the Tribes” — sprung from the similar, but much smaller, Love Pageant Rally that was held on October 6, 1966 — the day that California made LSD illegal. Organizers Allen Cohen and Michael Bowen, co-founders of the underground newspaper the San Francisco Oracle, wanted to re-create the peace and unity of that day, only on a larger scale. Their aim for the Human Be-In was to spread positivity and bridge the counterculture’s anti-war and hippie communities, while raising awareness around the pressing issues of the time: questioning authority, rethinking consumerism, and opposing the Vietnam War.
On January 14, 1967, the idea came together. Counterculture icons such as Beat poet Allen Ginsberg and LSD advocate Timothy Leary spoke to the masses — the latter famously urged participants to “turn on, tune in, drop out” — and the Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, and other legends performed at the event. The optimism that collective action could have a tangible impact on society felt stronger than ever. San Francisco Chronicle columnist Ralph Gleason said it was “truly something new,” calling it “an affirmation, not a protest… a promise of good, not evil.” The wheels for the Summer of Love were in motion.

Live Music Was Changed Forever

The Summer of Love not only introduced a cultural revolution — it also marked a turning point in pop culture. It made stars of some of music’s most enduring names and introduced major music festivals as we know them today. After the inaugural Human Be-In, other similar events unfolded around the world, laying the blueprint for large outdoor live performances. The first event to specifically call itself a music festival took place on June 10 and 11, 1967, on Mount Tamalpais in Marin County, just north of San Francisco. The KFRC Fantasy Fair and Magic Mountain Music Festival featured performances by the Doors, Jefferson Airplane, the Byrds, Steve Miller Band, and many others, and is considered America’s first true rock festival. One week later, another pivotal event — the centerpiece of the Summer of Love — changed live music forever.

The Monterey Pop Festival took place across three days, June 16, 17, and 18. Organized by influential figures in the music scene, including John Phillips of the Mamas and the Papas, former Beatles publicist Derek Taylor, and record producer Lou Adler, the event attracted upwards of 200,000 attendees over the weekend. Prior to the festival, the release of “San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair)” by Scott McKenzie, a song penned by Phillips to promote the event, garnered significant global attention, becoming not only a chart-topping hit, but a driving force in enticing young people to join the hippies in Haight-Ashbury that summer. Press coverage turned Monterey Pop into a worldwide media spectacle. Iconic images from the event captured in a 1968 documentary by D.A. Pennebaker became lasting symbols of the hippie movement. The festival also catapulted artists such as Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, Otis Redding, and The Who to fame, thanks to their legendary performances during that weekend. Monterey became the template for the modern festival industry, showcasing emerging artists alongside blockbuster bands in a massive outdoor setting.

Photo credit: Graphic House/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

American Counterculture Was Catapulted Into the Mainstream

Although little attention had previously been given to the burgeoning free-love community, national media flocked to the Human Be-In and the events that followed. During the Summer of Love, scenes from Haight-Ashbury were reported on by major print and broadcast outlets across the world, instilling fear of strange new unknowns in some, inspiring others, and nonetheless firmly planting counterculture ideals and visuals front and center for America to see.

The cultural revolution was further bolstered by the music of the era. Psychedelic rock, folk, and protest songs became anthems of the movement, resonating with both the youth and older generations. Eventually, the anti-establishment sentiments and activism of the counterculture began to influence mainstream politics and social movements. Issues such as civil rights, environmentalism, gender equality, and opposition to the Vietnam War gained broader support and attention as these ideas permeated mainstream discourse. Though the Summer of Love was itself short-lived, its legacy continued to shape popular culture, fashion, music, and social norms for decades to come.

Recommendations For You

Unforgettable Moments in Baseball History

Joe DiMaggio swinging

Since the sport’s first professional game was played in 1869, the history of baseball has been filled with memorable moments both triumphant and tragic. Often, these moments reflect the history and spirit of America itself: Lou Gehrig’s heartfelt retirement speech has become a symbol of grace and humility in the face of tragedy, while Jackie Robinson’s courageous breaking of baseball’s color barrier presaged the national fight against racial segregation. Though baseball has gone through many incarnations over the years, one thing that has remained constant is the game’s capacity to generate great stories. From the rigging of the World Series to Willie Mays’ unforgettable catch, here are seven major moments in the history of baseball.

Photo credit: FPG/ Hulton Archive via Getty Images

The Chicago “Black Sox” Throw the World Series

Even before the Cincinnati Reds defeated the Chicago White Sox in the 1919 World Series, rumors had been circulating that the losing team was planning to deliberately underperform in order to throw the World Series and allow the Reds to win. A grand jury convened in 1920 discovered that eight White Sox players had been involved in a gambling conspiracy to corrupt the series in the Reds’ favor, and three players admitted to the grand jury that they had accepted money from gamblers. The plot to throw the 1919 World Series became known as the “Black Sox scandal,” and it remains one of the most significant controversies in the history of baseball. Eight players, including the legendary outfielder “Shoeless” Joe Jackson, were permanently banned from Major League Baseball, and in order to prevent future corruption, the role of commissioner was established and strict laws against gambling were instituted that remain in place today.

Photo credit: B Bennett via Getty Images

Babe Ruth Calls His Shot

One of the most famous home runs in baseball history occurred in Game 3 of the 1932 World Series between the Chicago Cubs and the New York Yankees. At the top of the fifth inning, Yankees slugger Babe Ruth, often considered the greatest baseball player of all time, faced off against Cubs pitcher Charlie Root with two balls and two strikes. Just before the pitch, Ruth pointed toward the outfield, and when the pitch came, he hit a towering home run to center field. In the newspapers the next day, ecstatic reporters announced that Ruth had “called his shot,” and that his gesture toward the bleachers was a prediction of the home run he would hit on the next pitch. Thus was born one of the greatest legends in baseball history. Although the exact details of where exactly Ruth was pointing and why are disputed, the home run that became known as the “called shot” has nevertheless become an immortal part of the Great Bambino’s legacy.

Photo credit: Sporting News Archive/ Sporting News via Getty Images

Lou Gehrig Gives a Retirement Speech for the Ages

When Yankees slugger Lou Gehrig announced his retirement in 1939, it shocked the baseball world. During his career, Gehrig’s seemingly endless endurance had allowed him to play in 2,130 consecutive games (a record that stood for nearly 60 years), earning him the nickname “the Iron Horse.” However, in 1939, when Gehrig was diagnosed with the neurodegenerative disease ALS (which became commonly known as Lou Gehrig’s disease), the Iron Horse was finally forced to end his baseball career. In the retirement speech he delivered at Yankee Stadium on July 4, 1939, Gehrig told the crowd that despite his “bad break,” he considered himself “the luckiest man on the face of the Earth.” This iconic phrase, emblematic of Gehrig’s grace and humility, remains famous today, and his speech is often recognized as one of the greatest in sports history.

Joe DiMaggio Sets an “Unbreakable” Record

On May 15, 1941, Yankees outfielder Joe DiMaggio hit a modest single that marked the start of one of the most legendary records in baseball history: the 56-game hitting streak. For two months, the baseball world watched in awe as DiMaggio got at least one hit in game after game. By the time DiMaggio’s streak ended two months and 55 games later, he had set a record that many baseball experts consider to be unbreakable. So far, they have yet to be proved wrong. While DiMaggio himself said that he believed that someone would one day surpass his 56-game hitting streak, in the 80 years since he set the record, nobody has even come close. The longest hitting streak since, achieved by Pete Rose in 1978, was just 44 games long, almost two weeks shy of Joltin’ Joe’s seemingly immortal record.

Photo credit: Irving Haberman/IH Images/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

Jackie Robinson Breaks Baseball’s Color Barrier

Before Jackie Robinson made his major league debut on April 15, 1947, professional baseball was a racially segregated sport in the United States. Robinson’s historic debut at first base for the Brooklyn Dodgers at Ebbets Field broke the so-called “color barrier” that had kept Black and white players in separate leagues. Robinson faced great challenges during his MLB career, but his courage and talent opened the door for future generations of baseball legends. His abilities on the field earned him a spot in the National Baseball Hall of Fame, and in recognition of his trailblazing career, his number, 42, was retired league-wide in 1997. He remains the only player to ever receive such an honor.

Willie Mays Makes “the Catch”

Willie Mays is one of the greatest baseball players in the history of the sport, and one of the most enduring parts of his legacy is the stunning play he made in the 1954 World Series — known to history simply as “the Catch.” Mays made the play in the eighth inning of Game 1, with the score tied 2-2 between Mays’ New York Giants and the Cleveland Indians. Cleveland slugger Vic Wertz hit a long fly ball toward Mays in center field. Mays turned and sprinted backward, making a miraculous over-the-shoulder catch 425 feet from home plate. As if that wasn’t a stunning-enough achievement, Mays completed the play by spinning around and making an incredible throw from the outfield to prevent Cleveland’s baserunners from getting home. The play saved the game for the Giants, who went on to sweep Cleveland in four games to become World Series champions.

Hank Aaron Breaks Babe Ruth’s Career Home Run Record

For nearly four decades after his retirement, Babe Ruth was hailed as the undisputed home run king. His 714 career home runs stood as a monument to his unrivaled power at the plate. Then Hank Aaron arrived. Since his MLB debut in 1954, Aaron had been an extremely consistent slugger, and he led the league in home runs four separate times. The years of steady power hitting paid off on April 8, 1974, when Aaron hit his 715th career home run and surpassed Ruth to inherit one of baseball’s most hallowed records. Aaron’s historic career continued for another three seasons, during which time he added 40 homers to his career total, retiring with a staggering 755 home runs. This record was eventually surpassed by Barry Bonds in 2007, but to this day Aaron remains celebrated as the first player to surpass the Sultan of Swat as the home run champion.

Recommendations For You

5 Fun Facts About Swimsuits Through History

Men in bathing costumes

For as long as humankind has walked the Earth, we’ve also wanted to jump into the water. The invention of the bathing suit as a tasteful, stylish outfit specifically for water-based leisure may go as far back as ancient Rome. The history of swimwear is a history of not only sports and fun, but also modesty and fashion. Here are a few interesting landmarks in beachwear through the years.

Before Bathing Suits, There Were Bathing Dresses

At the start of the 20th century, women in the U.S. and Western Europe were expected to wear what were known as “bathing dresses.” These were thick and colorful knee-length garments made of wool, designed to be worn on visits to the seaside. Given the strict nature of fashion at this time, it wasn’t uncommon for a woman to wear a bathing corset, too, as well as bloomers under their bathing dress. Despite the name, neither of these articles of clothing was meant for bathing, let alone swimming: They were too heavy and restrictive, not to mention itchy and pungent. Rather, they were decorative items of clothing designed for sea-adjacent leisure and outdoor activities that required as little movement as possible.

Photo credit: Keystone/ Hulton Archive via Getty Images

The Modern Bikini Was Invented by an Auto Engineer

The string bikini as we know it was invented in 1946 by French automotive engineer-turned fashion designer Louis Réard. The design featured four triangles of fabric — two for the bottom, two for the top — and spaghetti straps. Expecting an explosive reaction to his daring design, Réard named the suit for Bikini Atoll in the Pacific islands, where the U.S. conducted atomic bomb testing starting in the mid-1940s. A nude dancer from the Casino de Paris named Micheline Bernardini first modeled the provocative swimwear, in part because no runway model could be convinced to pose in something so revealing. Within the decade that followed, however, the bikini became ubiquitous, thanks in part to Hollywood stars such as Brigitte Bardot and Marilyn Monroe popularizing the style, as well as the rapidly changing social norms in the post-World War II era.

Photo credit: Tim Graham/ Getty Images News via Getty Images

The Two-Piece Swimsuit Dates Back to Ancient Rome

Though the modern bikini didn’t come along until the 20th century, the two-piece swimsuit dates back as far as ancient Rome. An ancient mosaic found on the walls of a Sicilian villa depicts images of women now known as the “Bikini Girls.” The figures are shown dancing, running, and playing in almost contemporary-looking beachwear. Historians remain unsure if such suits were worn for water-based activities or if they were standard exercise outfits during the warm Sicilian summers. Regardless, the women depicted appear to be moving freely, suggesting that these early suits were worn as activewear.

The First Iconic Suit Was a Red Wool One-Piece

There are a number of iconic bathing suits that are now canonical bits of popular culture — think Farrah Fawcett’s red one-piece or Ursula Andress’ white bikini in the first James Bond film, Dr. No. But the original brand-recognizable bathing suit was the Jantzen Knitting Mills’ “Red Diving Girl,” introduced in 1920. Though not as famous as, say, the Morton Salt Girl in her yellow raincoat or the bonnet-donning Sun-Maid Girl, the Jantzen diving girl image — a woman diving into water in a red wool one-piece — popularized the bathing suit as less high fashion and more everyday function. Her diving posture suggested an ease of movement and flexibility; Jantzen debuted bathing suits featuring an “elastic stitch” that granted the wearer comfort in the heavy wool.

Photo credit: The Montifraulo Collection/ Getty Images News via Getty Images

Men Also Used to Wear One-Piece “Swimming Costumes”

Though the shirtless beach look is now standard for many men, being topless in public — for anyone of any gender — was considered controversial in many U.S. cities and states during the first half of the 20th century, and was even illegal in many parts of the country. In 1935, police arrested and fined 42 men who swam topless in Atlantic City, New Jersey, where “bareback swimming,” as it was known, was forbidden. There had been plenty of individual dalliances with shirtless swimming before, but this group arrest was intended as a protest against the restrictive rules. The law was overturned in New Jersey in 1937, and other states followed suit. Eventually men were free to abandon the one-piece “swimming costumes” they used to wear for the modern trunks we see today.

Recommendations For You

What Everyday Life Was Like in Ancient Rome

Ancient Romans gambling

Ancient Roman history is usually dominated by larger-than-life rulers such as Julius Caesar and eloquent senators such as Cicero. However, these men led an empire of millions of everyday citizens who were usually less concerned with conquering the world than they were with putting bread on the table and simply enjoying life. A look at the lives of typical Roman citizens reveals a culture that in many fundamental ways is not so different from ours; the ancient Romans worked, played, socialized, and expressed themselves — albeit often quite rudely. Here are six facts that offer a glimpse of what it was like to be an average citizen in one of the world’s largest and most influential empires.

Photo credit: INTERFOTO / Alamy Stock Photo

No Matter Where You Went, You Could Always Find a Public Bath

The Romans were masterful architects of public baths, called thermae. These were complex facilities with elaborate heating systems where Romans from all walks of life came together to relax, socialize, and of course, get clean. Bathing in the Roman thermae wasn’t just a simple dip in the water — there was a whole process involved. A visitor would begin by doing some light exercise followed by a hot bath, then a warm bath, and then a cold bath; they could also spend time in a steam room or get a massage. Public baths were a central part of Roman culture, and some citizens even considered them a symbol of Roman identity. In fact, baths were such an essential component of daily life that they were built in nearly every part of the Roman Empire, even in its most remote regions. Roman thermae could be found as far north as the British Isles and as far south as Egypt.

Photo credit: Werner Forman/ Universal Images Group via Getty Images

The Empire’s Cities Were Filled With Graffiti

Archaeological evidence from well-preserved ancient Roman cities such as Pompeii and Herculaneum reveals that, much like people in modern society, the denizens of ancient Rome liked to express themselves through some good old-fashioned graffiti. Since the ancient Romans lived a few millennia before the invention of spray paint, they had to make do by scratching and carving their designs and messages into plaster surfaces around the empire’s cities. Graffiti carved by everyday Romans can be found on the walls of bars, public baths, and other places where people commonly went to socialize. Ancient Roman street art ranged from simple drawings of stick figures and animals to colorful, R-rated jokes and insults. While some of the more famous Romans, such as emperors and statesmen, were commemorated through huge monuments and stately statues, graffiti was often a common person’s best shot at leaving their mark on the world, and many ancient graffiti artists included their names in the messages they left, to be remembered by future generations — even if it was just for a rude boast or scatological joke.

Photo credit: Heritage Images/ Hulton Fine Art Collection via Getty Images

The Roman Workday Ended at Noon

The ancient Romans didn’t have clocks they could use to count the hours of the day. Instead, they kept track of the time using the position of the sun, and employed devices such as sundials to divide the day and night into 12 evenly spaced units called “hora” (hours). Since tracking the sun was the Roman citizen’s principal timekeeping method, the workday was structured around solar positions that were easy to measure with the naked eye, such as sunrise, noon, and sunset. For this reason, a typical citizen would usually start their workday at dawn, which marked the first “hora” of the day, and stop working at noon. This left the rest of the afternoon open for leisure, and citizens from all levels of Roman society would spend that time attending sporting events, theatrical performances, and the all-important public baths.

Photo credit: Hulton Archive via Getty Images

The Roman People Loved to Gamble

A love of gambling extended to all levels of ancient Roman society. Less-wealthy citizens would place bets on a wide variety of board games and dice games, which they played in taverns, city streets, and other public spaces, while the rich would build private gaming rooms in their homes. Romans would also frequently bet on the outcomes of gladiator fights and chariot races. (For the most part, only men were permitted to gamble, though women were allowed to participate in games of chance during special festivals.) Even the Roman emperors got in on the action. Rulers such as Augustus and Nero were known for their gaming habits, and for betting small fortunes on a single throw of the dice. Roman Emperor Claudius even had a custom-made carriage built with a gaming table so that he could gamble while traveling.

Photo credit: De Luan/ Alamy Stock Photo

The Roman Forum Was the Center of Public Life

With its location right in the middle of the city, the Roman Forum was quite literally the center of everyday life in ancient times. It was where the typical Roman citizen could shop, talk, and find entertainment. It was also the site of most of the city’s public gatherings, the Roman courts of law, and the meeting place of the Roman Senate. What’s more, the forum housed some of Rome’s most important religious sites, including multiple temples dedicated to Roman deities. In other words, if you were a Roman citizen, chances were good that you’d be making frequent visits to the forum for everything from daily errands to grand citywide ceremonies.

Photo credit: FALKENSTEINFOTO/ Alamy Stock Photo

There Was a Temple Where Citizens Could Go to Worship Caesar

One prominent temple in the Roman Forum was dedicated not to the worship of a mythological god, but to the former dictator of Rome, Julius Caesar. During the funeral games held in Caesar’s honor shortly after his assassination in 44 BCE, a comet appeared in the sky for seven days, which the Roman populace interpreted as a divine omen that Caesar’s soul had ascended to the status of divinity. This popular belief that Caesar had become a god was codified into law two years later in 42 BCE, when the Roman Senate officially declared him a deity. After this, a temple was built in the forum in Caesar’s honor. It even had an altar where Roman citizens would offer sacrifices to the deified leader, just as they would to supernatural Roman gods such as Jupiter and Saturn.

Recommendations For You

How the 1970s Changed Television

Scene from M*A*S*H

The first commercial televisions were released to the American public in 1938, and if TV was in its infancy in the ’40s, growing up through the 1950s and ’60s, the ’70s were kind of like an adolescence: The medium got a little edgier, experimenting with new approaches and pushing social boundaries. The decade marked a turning point for the small screen, ushering in the modern era of TV we know today. Here are five ways the 1970s changed television.

Photo credit: Bettmann / Bettmann via Getty Images

Prime Time Got Real

Compared to the wholesome, idyllic worlds created in 1960s TV shows such as The Andy Griffith Show, The Dick Van Dyke Show, and Leave It to Beaver, the shows of the ’70s were shocking in their realism, thanks in large part to writer and producer Norman Lear. He created a string of hit series such as All in the Family, Good Times, and Maude that were groundbreaking in their depictions of racial tensions, marital problems, and class struggles — all while being some of the funniest shows of all time. All in the Family starred a politically incorrect Archie Bunker espousing opinions and using language that had not been heard on “polite” TV before. The series was the top-rated show in the U.S. from 1971 to ’76, a record run at the time.

Photo credit: Hulton Archive / Archive Photos via Getty Images

Sunny Days Came to Children’s TV

In 1970, the National Educational Television network became the Public Broadcasting Service, and its new children’s show Sesame Street helped put PBS on the map. Throughout the decade, Sesame Street gave children and parents a kind of educational, wide-ranging program that had not been seen on screen before. From its inception, the children’s show depicted the most diverse cast in TV up to that point, with children, adults, and puppets of all backgrounds living together in an urban environment. For this reason, the show wasn’t initially universally accepted: A state commission in Mississippi voted not to air Sesame Street, although the decision was later reversed. Fifty years later, the lessons of Elmo, Big Bird, and the gang are still watched by nearly half of preschool-aged children in America.

Miniseries Got Big Ratings

The 1970s saw an explosion of a new kind of television production with the miniseries. Debuting on PBS on January 10, 1971, Masterpiece Theatre introduced British TV serials to the United States, frequently with stories that were based on novels and thus had a predetermined endpoint. Soon after, U.S. production companies started making their own versions of these limited-run series. Rich Man, Poor Man was one of the first American miniseries, based on a 1969 Irwin Shaw novel of the same name. The 12-hour miniseries aired on ABC over the course of six weeks in 1976. Meanwhile, 1977’s Jesus of Nazareth was so popular, it was even endorsed by the pope at the time. That same year saw the debut of Roots, a groundbreaking hit about a family’s journey through slavery; over its eight-night run, it drew more viewers than any drama in TV history.

War Met Comedy

It’s rare that a TV show adapted from an Oscar-nominated film goes on to be even bigger than the original movie, but that’s just what M*A*S*H did after debuting on CBS in 1972. Set during the Korean War, M*A*S*H was revolutionary for depicting a tragic subject as a comedy show, and it’s considered the first popular “dramedy.” It aired during the time of the Vietnam War and took an openly anti-war stance, but despite the potentially divisive political message, it reached a level of popularity that almost no TV show has seen since. The series finale brought in around 106 million viewers, still a record for a scripted show. In its 11-year run, M*A*S*H won 14 Emmys and a Peabody Award.

Photo credit: Diamond Images / Diamond Images via Getty Images

The NFL Came to Prime Time

When the Jets played the Browns on September 21, 1970, it marked the NFL’s full-time debut in prime time. The very first Monday Night Football broadcast featured all-stars not only on the field but in the booth, with famed commentators Howard Cosell, Keith Jackson, and “Dandy” Don Meredith calling the game. TIME magazine wrote that the banter between Cosell and Meredith came “close to upstaging the action on the field.” Monday Night Football’s highly rated national broadcasts eventually led to the league expanding to other weekly prime-time features, including NBC’s Sunday Night Football, and Thursday-night games on various networks. MNF remains one of the most highly rated prime-time shows each season.

Recommendations For You

We Asked an Anthropologist About the Gangs of 19th-Century New York

More from our network

How Well Do You Know Your U.S. Geography?

Go Retro With This 1960s Fashion Quiz

6 Tricks Grocery Stores Use To Influence What You Buy

8 Hidden Car Features That Will Change Your Driving Game

Do You Know What the “P” in “P.M.” Stands For?

More on Cities

Author Bennett Kleinman